Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface

Journal: Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface

Abbreviation

J. geophys. res. Earth surf.

Publisher

American Geophysical Union

ISSN

2169-9003
2169-9011

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Publications1 - 10 of 113

Diurnal variability of subglacial drainage conditions as revealed by tracer experiments
Schuler, Thomas; Fischer, Urs H.; Gudmundsson, Gudmundur H. (2004)
Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface
The morphology of the drainage system of Unteraargletscher, Switzerland, and the diurnal variability of drainage conditions were investigated by conducting a series of tracer tests over a number of discharge cycles during the ablation season 2000. Dye injections into a moulin were repeated at intervals of a few hours and were accompanied by simultaneous measurements of discharge of supraglacial meltwater draining into the moulin and bulk runoff in the proglacial stream. Fast transit velocities in conjunction with low dispersion values suggest that the tracer was routed through a hydraulically efficient, channelized drainage system. However, detailed analyses reveal a large diurnal variability in terms of transit velocity and dispersion coefficient. This finding underlines the difficulty of detecting a possible drainage system evolution based on single tracer tests conducted at coarse temporal intervals. Furthermore, the obtained velocity-discharge relationships display pronounced hysteresis. We suggest that the evolution of the cross-sectional area of an ice-walled conduit and the modulation of inflow at the junction of a tributary moulin to a main subglacial channel are responsible for the observed behavior.
Conditions for thrust faulting in a glacier
Moore, Peter L.; Iverson, Neal R.; Cohen, Denis (2010)
Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface
Dipping, arcuate bands of debris-rich ice outcropping near the margins of glaciers are often interpreted as thrust faults, assumed to originate in zones of longitudinal compression. Identification of thrusts is typically based either on the geometry and sedimentology of the debris bands or on the crystal fabric of surrounding ice, but the physical processes necessary to generate thrusts are rarely evaluated. Herein, we combine a numerical model of compressive ice flow near a glacier margin with theoretical stress and strain rate criteria for ice fracture and stress criteria for frictional slip to determine the conditions necessary for thrust faulting in glaciers. This model is applied to two different glaciological settings where longitudinal compression has been documented: (1) the transition between warm-based and cold-based ice near the terminus of Storglaciären, Sweden, and (2) the downglacier extent of the 1983 surge front of Variegated Glacier where surging ice encountered stagnant ice. Simulations representing the margin of Storglaciären indicate that peak compressive strain rates are six orders of magnitude too small to induce fracture, whereas at Variegated Glacier, strain rates were an order of magnitude too small for compressive fracture. In both groups of simulations, preexisting fractures governed by Coulomb friction are susceptible to slip if they span the ice thickness, are oriented close to the optimal fracture angle, and, in the case of Storglaciären, are subject to water pressures that are a large fraction of ice overburden pressure. Variations about the optimal fracture orientation, low or zero water pressure, high sliding friction coefficient, and limited vertical or lateral fracture extent each tend to suppress thrusting.
Autogenic entrenchment patterns and terraces due to coupling with lateral erosion in incising alluvial channels
Malatesta, Luca C.; Prancevic, Jeffrey; Avouac, Jean-Philippe (2017)
Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface
The abandonment of terraces in incising alluvial rivers can be used to infer tectonic and climatic histories. A river incising into alluvium erodes both vertically and laterally as it abandons fill-cut terraces. We argue that the input of sediment from the valley walls during entrenchment can alter the incision dynamics of a stream by promoting vertical incision over lateral erosion. Using a numerical model, we investigate how valley wall feedbacks may affect incision rates and terrace abandonment as the channel becomes progressively more entrenched in its valley. We postulate that erosion of taller valley walls delivers large pulses of sediment to the incising channel, potentially overwhelming the local sediment transport capacity. Based on field observations, we propose that these pulses of sediment can form talus piles that shield the valley wall from subsequent erosion and potentially force progressive channel narrowing. Our model shows that this positive feedback mechanism can enhance vertical incision relative to 1-D predictions that ignore lateral erosion. We find that incision is most significantly enhanced when sediment transport rates are low relative to the typical volume of material collapsed from the valley walls. The model also shows a systematic erosion of the youngest terraces when river incision slows down. The autogenic entrenchment due to lateral feedbacks with valley walls should be taken into account in the interpretation of complex-response terraces.
Determination of the macroscopic optical properties of snow based on exact morphology and direct pore-level heat transfer modeling
Haussener, Sophia; Gergely, Mathias; Schneebeli, Martin; et al. (2012)
Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface
A multiscale methodology for the determination of the macroscopic optical properties of snow is presented. It consists of solving the coupled volume-averaged radiative transfer equations for two semi-transparent phases – ice and air – by Monte Carlo ray tracing in an infinite slab via direct pore-level simulations on the exact 3D microstructure obtained by computed tomography. The overall reflectance and transmittance are computed for slabs of five characteristic snow types subjected to collimated and diffuse incident radiative flux for wavelengths 0.3–3 μm. The effect of simplifying the snow microstructure and/or the radiative transfer model is elucidated by comparing our results to (i) a homogenized radiation model and considering a particulate medium made of optical equivalent grain size spheres (DISORT), or (ii) a multiphase radiation model considering a packed bed of identical overlapping semi-transparent spheres. The calculations are experimentally validated by transmittance measurements. Significant differences in the macroscopic optical properties are observed when simplifying the snow morphology and the heat transfer model (i.e., homogenized versus multiphase). The proposed approach allows – in addition to determine macroscopic optical properties based on the exact morphology and obtained by advanced heat transfer model – for detailed understanding of radiative heat transfer in snow layers at the pore-scale level.
Unraveling the Mysteries of Asymmetric Topography at Gabilan Mesa, California
Richardson, Paul; Perron, J. Taylor; Miller, Scott R.; et al. (2020)
Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface
We investigated the potential causes of topographic asymmetry at Gabilan Mesa, CA, a site that exhibits large aspect-dependent differences in hillslope gradients and microclimates. Competing hypotheses have been proposed to explain the asymmetry observed at Gabilan Mesa. One hypothesis states that different microclimates on opposing slopes are responsible for differences in runoff or soil strength, which generates asymmetric topography. A second hypothesis states that differences in sediment flux from opposing slopes causes southward lateral channel migration and oversteepening of north facing slopes. To test these hypotheses, we carried out numerical modeling experiments, terrain analysis, and field measurements. We also considered the role of initial tilting in causing the asymmetry. We found that saturated hydraulic conductivity is considerably lower on south facing slopes in one highly asymmetric basin. This is consistent with the hypothesis that aspect-dependent runoff is responsible for the asymmetry. We also used cosmogenic radionuclide-derived erosion rates and topographic characteristics at Gabilan Mesa to test predictions from numerical landscape evolution models that incorporate asymmetry-forming mechanisms. The aspect-dependent models reproduce the erosional and topographic characteristics of Gabilan Mesa better than the lateral channel migration model. We conclude that aspect-dependent runoff is the most likely explanation for most of the topographic asymmetry at Gabilan Mesa. Our results do not rule out tilting as a possible influence on the initial development of asymmetry nor do they rule out the possibility that lateral channel migration has contributed to the asymmetry, but we suggest that tilting and lateral channel migration are not primarily responsible for it. © 2020 American Geophysical Union.
Evaluation of slope stability with respect to snowpack spatial variability
Gaume, Johan; Schweizer, Jürg; van Herwijnen, Alec; et al. (2014)
Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface
The evaluation of avalanche release conditions constitutes a great challenge for risk assessment in mountainous areas. The spatial variability of snowpack properties has an important impact on snow slope stability and thus on avalanche formation, since it strongly influences failure initiation and crack propagation in weak snow layers. Hence, the determination of the link between these spatial variations and slope stability is very important, in particular, for avalanche public forecasting. In this study, a statisticalmechanical model of the slabweak layer (WL) system relying on stochastic finite element simulations is used to investigate snowpack stability and avalanche release probability for spontaneously releasing avalanches. This model accounts, in particular, for the spatial variations of WL shear strength and stress redistribution by elasticity of the slab. We show how avalanche release probability can be computed from release depth distributions, which allows us to study the influence of WL spatial variations and slab properties on slope stability. The importance of smoothing effects by slab elasticity is verified and the crucial impact of spatial variation characteristics on the socalled knockdown effect on slope stability is revisited using this model. Finally, critical length values are computed from the simulations as a function of the various model parameters and are compared to field data obtained with propagation saw tests.
An analytical fiber bundle model for pullout mechanics of root bundles
Cohen, D.; Schwarz, M.; Or, Dani (2011)
Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface
Roots in soil contribute to the mechanical stability of slopes. Estimation of root reinforcement is challenging because roots form complex biological networks whose geometrical and mechanical characteristics are difficult to characterize. Here we describe an analytical model that builds on simple root descriptors to estimate root reinforcement. Root bundles are modeled as bundles of heterogeneous fibers pulled along their long axes neglecting root-soil friction. Analytical expressions for the pullout force as a function of displacement are derived. The maximum pullout force and corresponding critical displacement are either derived analytically or computed numerically. Key model inputs are a root diameter distribution (uniform, Weibull, or lognormal) and three empirical power law relations describing tensile strength, elastic modulus, and length of roots as functions of root diameter. When a root bundle with root tips anchored in the soil matrix is pulled by a rigid plate, a unique parameter, k, that depends only on the exponents of the power law relations, dictates the order in which roots of different diameters break. If k < 1, small roots break first; if k > 1, large roots break first. When k = 1, all fibers break simultaneously, and the maximum tensile force is simply the roots' mean force times the number of roots in the bundle. Based on measurements of root geometry and mechanical properties, the value of k is less than 1, usually ranging between 0 and 0.7. Thus, small roots always fail first. The model shows how geometrical and mechanical characteristics of roots and root diameter distribution affect the pullout force, its maximum and corresponding displacement. Comparing bundles of roots that have similar mean diameters, a bundle with a narrow variance in root diameter will result in a larger maximum force and a smaller displacement at maximum force than a bundle with a wide diameter distribution. Increasing the mean root diameter of a bundle without changing the distribution's shape increases both the maximum force and corresponding displacement. Estimates of the maximum pullout forces for bundles of 100 roots with identical diameter distribution for different species range from less than 1 kN for barley (Hordeum vulgare) to almost 16 kN for pistachio (Pistacia lentiscus). The model explains why a commonly used assumption that all roots break simultaneously overpredicts the maximum pullout force by a factor of about 1.6–2. This ratio may exceed 3 for diameter distributions that have a large number of small roots like the exponential distribution.
Response of bed surface patchiness to reductions in sediment supply
Nelson, Peter A.; Venditti, Jeremy G.; Dietrich, William E.; et al. (2009)
Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface
River beds are often arranged into patches of similar grain size and sorting. Patches can be distinguished into “free patches,” which are zones of sorted material that move freely, such as bed load sheets; “forced patches,” which are areas of sorting forced by topographic controls; and “fixed patches” of bed material rendered immobile through localized coarsening that remain fairly persistent through time. Two sets of flume experiments (one using bimodal, sand-rich sediment and the other using unimodal, sand-free sediment) are used to explore how fixed and free patches respond to stepwise reductions in sediment supply. At high sediment supply, migrating bed load sheets formed even in unimodal, sand-free sediment, yet grain interactions visibly played a central role in their formation. In both sets of experiments, reductions in supply led to the development of fixed coarse patches, which expanded at the expense of finer, more mobile patches, narrowing the zone of active bed load transport and leading to the eventual disappearance of migrating bed load sheets. Reductions in sediment supply decreased the migration rate of bed load sheets and increased the spacing between successive sheets. One-dimensional morphodynamic models of river channel beds generally are not designed to capture the observed variability, but should be capable of capturing the time-averaged character of the channel. When applied to our experiments, a 1-D morphodynamic model (RTe-bookAgDegNormGravMixPW.xls) predicted the bed load flux well, but overpredicted slope changes and was unable to predict the substantial variability in bed load flux (and load grain size) because of the migration of mobile patches. Our results suggest that (1) the distribution of free and fixed patches is primarily a function of sediment supply, (2) the dynamics of bed load sheets are primarily scaled by sediment supply, (3) channels with reduced sediment supply may inherently be unable to transport sediment uniformly across their width, and (4) cross-stream variability in shear stress and grain size can produce potentially large errors in width-averaged sediment flux calculations.
Simulating the impact of glaciations on continental groundwater flow systems: 2. Model application to the Wisconsinian glaciation over the Canadian landscape
Lemieux, Jean-Michel; Sudicky, Edward A.; Peltier, William R.; et al. (2008)
Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface
A 3-D groundwater flow and brine transport numerical model of the entire Canadian landscape up to a depth of 10 km is constructed in order to capture the impacts of the Wisconsinian glaciation on the continental groundwater flow system. The numerical development of the model is presented in the companion paper of Lemieux et al. (2008b). Although the scale of the model prevents the use of a detailed geological model, commonly occurring geological materials that exhibit relatively consistent hydrogeological properties over the continent justify the simplifications while still allowing the capture of large-scale flow system trends. The model includes key processes pertaining to coupled groundwater flow and glaciation modeling, such a density-dependent (i.e., brine) flow, hydromechanical loading, subglacial infiltration, isostasy, and permafrost development. The surface boundary conditions are specified with the results of a glacial system model. The significant impact of the ice sheet on groundwater flow is evident by increases in the hydraulic head values below the ice sheet by as much as 3000 m down to a depth of 1.5 km into the subsurface. Results also indicate that the groundwater flow system after glaciation did not fully revert to its initial condition and that it is still recovering from the glaciation perturbation. This suggests that the current groundwater flow system cannot be interpreted solely on the basis of present-day boundary conditions and it is likely that several thousands of years of additional equilibration time will be necessary for the system to reach a new quasi-steady state. Finally, we find permafrost to have a large impact on the rate of dissipation of high hydraulic heads that build at depth and capturing its accurate distribution is important to explain the current hydraulic head distribution across the Canadian landscape.
Debris-bed friction of hard-bedded glaciers
Cohen, Denis; Iverson, Neal R.; Hooyer, Thomas S.; et al. (2005)
Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface
Field measurements of debris-bed friction on a smooth rock tablet at the bed of Engabreen, a hard-bedded, temperate glacier in northern Norway, indicated that basal ice containing 10% debris by volume exerted local shear traction of up to 500 kPa. The corresponding bulk friction coefficient between the dirty basal ice and the tablet was between 0.05 and 0.08. A model of friction in which nonrotating spherical rock particles are held in frictional contact with the bed by bed-normal ice flow can account for these measurements if the power law exponent for ice flowing past large clasts is 1. A small exponent (n < 2) is likely because stresses in ice are small and flow is transient. Numerical calculations of the bed-normal drag force on a sphere in contact with a flat bed using n = 1 show that this force can reach values several hundred times that on a sphere isolated from the bed, thus drastically increasing frictional resistance. Various estimates of basal friction are obtained from this model. For example, the shear traction at the bed of a glacier sliding at 20 m a⁻¹ with a geothermally induced melt rate of 0.006 m a⁻¹ and an effective pressure of 300 kPa can exceed 100 kPa. Debris-bed friction can therefore be a major component of sliding resistance, contradicting the common assumption that debris-bed friction is negligible.

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